تحقیق درباره پیدایش و تحول زبان
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فهرست مطالب:
چکیده مطالب
مقدمه
شکل گیری الگوهای صوتی و کلمه ای
تعریف زبان و شکل گیری آن
انواع زبان در کودکان
توصیه هایی برای رشد زبان در کودکان از نظر تلیپ دویلیافر
گونه های زبان
ساختار درونی زبان
قواعد کاربرد شناختی زبان
فرا زبان
رشد زبانی کودک و نظریه ای آن
مراحل فراگیری زبان
خلاصه گیری و نتیجه گیری
منابع و ماخذ
چکیده
آنچه در این مقاله تحت عنوان پیدایش و تحول گفتار ارائه شده نظریه ای بنیادی در گستره زبان است. بسیاری از نظریاتی که تاکنون در مورد علل پیدایش زبان در نزد نوع انسان ارائه شده اند، این فرض را پیشاپیش یدک می کشند که گفتار وسیله ای جهت انتقال پیام است که بشر آن را برای ارتباط با همنوع آفریده است. ولی نظریه ای که در این مقاله گرد آمده است ادعا می کند که در بسیاری موارد گفتار تنها پاسخی به برانگیختگی حاصل از برنامه ای تحت عنوان الگوی کلمه ای در مغز است. آن چه در بسیاری از موارد مکالمه ای دو یا چند نفره به حساب می آید، رفتاری است که هر فرد در جهت پاسخگویی به برانگیختگی حاصل از برنامه ای در مغز خود داده است که متقابلا برنامه ای را در مغز افراد برانگیخته می سازد. این نوع گفت و شنودها، مکالماتی نیستند که ضرورتا منظور از آن، انتقال پیام باشد. این نظریه برای تحول زبان که گفتار تنها بخشی از آن است، روندی قائل است که از شیوه ارتباط افراد با محیط نشات گرفته است، به طوری که انواع تعاملات افراد با جامعه یا اجتماع (که از تعاریف متفاوت برخوردارند) می تواند به الگوهای متفاوتی از گفتار منجر شود. همچنین، با پیگیری چگونگی شکل گیری گفتار در نزد کودکان، نشان داده شده که چارچوب گفتار در نزد افراد در جوامع ابتدایی و کودکان یکسان است و تنها پس از تعاملات افراد در جوامع باستان و جوامع امروزی است که مفاهیم و معانی در مغزها جای گرفته و گفتار چارچوبی جدید در نزد بزرگسالان در جوامع امروزی یافته، به طوری که مغز و گفتار، مفاهیم و معانی را به کار می برند. نظریه ای که از یک طرف تشریح کننده گفتاری است که از واژه ها، نه به مثابه نشانه هایی دلالت کننده بر موضوعها و معانی، بلکه همچون ״خود موضوعها״ استفاده می کند و از طرف دیگر تعیین کننده گفتاری که کلمات، نشانه های موضوع ها و مفاهیم و دلالت کننده بر آنها به حساب می آیند. همچنین، بر طبق نظریات مذکور تبیین شده است که بسیاری از خصایص موجود در زبان (به تعدادی که در این اثر تشریح شده است) ، نه آن گونه که تجربه گرایان، رفتار گرایان و تداعی گرایان پنداشته اند از طریق یادگیری آگاهانه کسب می شود و نه آن گونه که ساختگرایان تصور کرده اند، از ویژگی های ذاتی مغز است، بلکه از طریق درون سازی ناآگاهانه در مغز تثبیت شده و پس از برانگیختگی در قالب زبان ریخته می شود. نظریه ای که ״تعاملی״ لقب گرفته است.
مجموعه کلیپهای صوتی و تصویری آموزش مکالمه آسان انگلیسی مثل آب خوردن یکجا و با تخفیف
مجموعه کلیپهای صوتی و تصویری آموزش مکالمه انگلیسی مثل آب خوردن
بخش اول و دوم و سوم به صورت یکجا ( درسهای 1 تا 90)
همراه با تخفیف خرید به صورت یکجا
✔ آموزش لغات + تلفظ
✔ آموزش گرامر به صورت ناخودآگاه
✔ تقویت مکالمه انگلیسی در مدتی کوتاه
✔ آموزش مکالمه های کاربردی انگلیسی
✔ قابل استفاده بر روی موبایل و تبلت و کامپیوتر و دستگاههای خانگی
✔ کوتاه و مفید و مختصر
✔ تقویت شنیدار و صحبت کردن انگلیسی
مجموعه کلیپهای صوتی و تصویری آموزش مکالمه انگلیسی مثل آب خوردن در بخش اول در 30 درس با کیفیت بهتر و مناسبت برای دوستانی که تمایل به داشتن همه این مجموعه ها به صورت یکجا دارند، آماده شده و با قیمتی ناچیز در اختیار شما قرار داده شده است.
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Learn to Speak Italian Level One Unit Sixteen
It’s now possible to speak and understand a foreign language effortlessly. The world-famous Pimsleur Method™ combines well-established research, most-useful vocabulary and a completely intuitive process to get you speaking right from the first day. All Pimsleur® courses feature real-world context and flexible vocabulary enabling you to learn your new language in a fluid, natural way. It’s the simplest way to start speaking a new language today.
Italian is the official language of Italy and San Marino, and an official language of Switzerland, Croatia, and Slovenia. It is spoken by about 66 million worldwide. Learn Italian today with Pimsleur.
You can download the first lesson for free from here.
DescriptionIncludes 30 lessons and reading instruction (16 hours) as MP3 download, plus a User’s Guide and Reading Booklet
The Easiest and Fastest Way to Learn Italian
Whether you want to travel, communicate with friends or colleagues, reconnect with family, or just understand more of what’s going on in the world around you, learning Italian will expand your horizons and immeasurably enrich your life.
The best part is that it doesn’t have to be difficult or take years to master. Thirty minutes a day is all it takes, and we get you speaking right from the first day. Pimsleur courses use a scientifically-proven method that puts you in control of your learning. If you’ve tried other language learning methods but found they simply didn’t stick, then you owe it to yourself to give Pimsleur a try.
Why Pimsleur?
- Quick + Easy – Only 30 minutes a day.
- Portable + Flexible – Core lessons can be done anytime, anywhere, and easily fit into your busy life.
- Proven Method – Works when other methods fail.
- Self-Paced – Go fast or go slow – it’s up to you.
- Based in Science – Developed using proven research on memory and learning.
- Cost-effective – Less expensive than classes or immersion, and features all native speakers.
- Genius – Triggers your brain’s natural aptitude to learn.
- Works for everyone – Recommended for ages 13 and above.
What’s Included?
- 30, 30-minute audio lessons
- 60 minutes of reading instruction to provide you with an introduction to reading Italian designed to teach you to sound out words with correct pronunciation and accent
- in total, 16 hours of audio, all featuring native speakers
- a Reading Booklet and a User’s Guide
What You’ll Learn
In the first 10 lessons, you’ll cover the basics: saying hello, asking for or giving information, scheduling a meal or a meeting, asking for or giving basic directions, and much more. You’ll be able to handle minimum courtesy requirements, understand much of what you hear, and be understood at a beginning level, but with near-native pronunciation skills.
In the next 10 lessons, you’ll build on what you’ve learned. Expand your menu, increase your scheduling abilities from general to specific, start to deal with currency and exchanging money, refine your conversations and add over a hundred new vocabulary items. You’ll understand more of what you hear, and be able to participate with speech that is smoother and more confident.
In the final 10 lessons, you’ll be speaking and understanding at an intermediate level. In this phase, more directions are given in the target language, which moves your learning to a whole new plane. Lessons include shopping, visiting friends, going to a restaurant, plans for the evening, car trips, and talking about family. You’ll be able to speak comfortably about things that happened in the past and make plans for the future.
Reading Lessons begin in Lesson 9 to provide you with an introduction to reading Italian. In addition, the combined Reading Lessons are included after Lesson 30. These Reading Lessons, which total about one hour, are designed to teach you to sound out words with correct pronunciation and accent.
The Pimsleur Method
We make no secret of what makes this powerful method work so well. Paul Pimsleur spent his career researching and perfecting the precise elements anyone can use to learn a language quickly and easily. Here are a few of his “secrets”:
The Principle of Anticipation
In the nanosecond between a cue and your response, your brain has to work to come up with the right word. Having to do this boosts retention, and cements the word in your mind.
Core Vocabulary
Words, phrases, and sentences are selected for their usefulness in everyday conversation. We don’t overwhelm you with too much, but steadily increase your ability with every lesson.
Graduated Interval Recall
Reminders of new words and structures come up at the exact interval for maximum retention and storage into your long-term memory.
Organic Learning
You work on multiple aspects of the language simultaneously. We integrate grammar, vocabulary, rhythm, melody, and intonation into every lesson, which allows you to experience the language as a living, expressive form of human culture.
Learning in Context
Research has shown that learning new words in context dramatically accelerates your ability to remember. Every scene in every Pimsleur lesson is set inside a conversation between two people. There are no drills, and no memorization necessary for success.
Active Participation
The Pimsleur Method + active learner participation = success. This method works with every language and every learner who follows it. You gain the power to recall and use what you know, and to add new words easily, exactly as you do in English.
The Italian Language
Italian is the official language of Italy and San Marino, and one of the official languages of Switzerland, Croatia, and Slovenia. Italian is spoken by about 58 million people in Italy, 24,000 in San Marino, 840,000 in Switzerland, another million in other European countries, and approximately 5 million in North and South America. Historically, Italian is a daughter language of Latin. Italian uses the Roman alphabet and the pronunciation of the language follows the spelling very closely.
Learn to Speak German Level Three Unit Nineteen
It’s now possible to speak and understand a foreign language effortlessly. The world-famous Pimsleur Method™ combines well-established research, most-useful vocabulary and a completely intuitive process to get you speaking right from the first day. All Pimsleur® courses feature real-world context and flexible vocabulary enabling you to learn your new language in a fluid, natural way. It’s the simplest way to start speaking a new language today.
German is the official language of Germany and Austria and is one of the official languages of Switzerland, Belgium, Lichtenstein, and Luxembourg. Nearly 100 million people speak German as their first language. Learn German today with Pimsleur.
You can download the first lesson for free from Here.
You can download the reading booklet for free from here.
Description
Includes 30 lessons and reading instruction (16 hours) as MP3 download, plus a User’s Guide and Reading Booklet
The Easiest and Fastest Way to Learn German
Whether you want to travel, communicate with friends or colleagues, reconnect with family, or just understand more of what’s going on in the world around you, learning German will expand your horizons and immeasurably enrich your life.
The best part is that it doesn’t have to be difficult or take years to master. Thirty minutes a day is all it takes, and we get you speaking right from the first day. Pimsleur courses use a scientifically-proven method that puts you in control of your learning. If you’ve tried other language learning methods but found they simply didn’t stick, then you owe it to yourself to give Pimsleur a try.
Why Pimsleur?
- Quick + Easy – Only 30 minutes a day.
- Portable + Flexible – Core lessons can be done anytime, anywhere, and easily fit into your busy life.
- Proven Method – Works when other methods fail.
- Self-Paced – Go fast or go slow – it’s up to you.
- Based in Science – Developed using proven research on memory and learning.
- Cost-effective – Less expensive than classes or immersion, and features all native speakers.
- Genius – Triggers your brain’s natural aptitude to learn.
- Works for everyone – Recommended for ages 13 and above.
What’s Included?
- 30, 30-minute audio lessons
- 60 minutes of reading instruction to provide you with an introduction to reading German designed to teach you to sound out words with correct pronunciation and accent
- in total, 16 hours of audio, all featuring native speakers
- a Reading Booklet and a User’s Guide
What You’ll Learn
In the first 10 lessons, you’ll cover the basics: saying hello, asking for or giving information, scheduling a meal or a meeting, asking for or giving basic directions, and much more. You’ll be able to handle minimum courtesy requirements, understand much of what you hear, and be understood at a beginning level, but with near-native pronunciation skills.
In the next 10 lessons, you’ll build on what you’ve learned. Expand your menu, increase your scheduling abilities from general to specific, start to deal with currency and exchanging money, refine your conversations and add over a hundred new vocabulary items. You’ll understand more of what you hear, and be able to participate with speech that is smoother and more confident.
In the final 10 lessons, you’ll be speaking and understanding at an intermediate level. In this phase, more directions are given in the target language, which moves your learning to a whole new plane. Lessons include shopping, visiting friends, going to a restaurant, plans for the evening, car trips, and talking about family. You’ll be able to speak comfortably about things that happened in the past and make plans for the future.
Reading Lessons begin in Lesson 10 to provide you with an introduction to reading German. In addition, the combined Reading Lessons are included after Lesson 30. These Reading Lessons, which total about one hour, are designed to teach you to sound out words with correct pronunciation and accent.
The Pimsleur Method
We make no secret of what makes this powerful method work so well. Paul Pimsleur spent his career researching and perfecting the precise elements anyone can use to learn a language quickly and easily. Here are a few of his “secrets”:
The Principle of Anticipation
In the nanosecond between a cue and your response, your brain has to work to come up with the right word. Having to do this boosts retention, and cements the word in your mind.
Core Vocabulary
Words, phrases, and sentences are selected for their usefulness in everyday conversation. We don’t overwhelm you with too much, but steadily increase your ability with every lesson.
Graduated Interval Recall
Reminders of new words and structures come up at the exact interval for maximum retention and storage into your long-term memory.
Organic Learning
You work on multiple aspects of the language simultaneously. We integrate grammar, vocabulary, rhythm, melody, and intonation into every lesson, which allows you to experience the language as a living, expressive form of human culture.
Learning in Context
Research has shown that learning new words in context dramatically accelerates your ability to remember. Every scene in every Pimsleur lesson is set inside a conversation between two people. There are no drills, and no memorization necessary for success.
Active Participation
The Pimsleur Method + active learner participation = success. This method works with every language and every learner who follows it. You gain the power to recall and use what you know, and to add new words easily, exactly as you do in English.
The German Language
German is the official language of Germany and Austria and is one of the official languages of Switzerland. It is also an official language in Belgium, Lichtenstein, and Luxembourg. Nearly 100 million people speak German as their first language: about 77 million in Germany, 8 million in Austria, and 4.5 million in Switzerland.
کتاب کامل گرامر زبان انگلیسی
دکتر سید ریحان صفوی همامی و زهرا پاک دلیان